Egyptian and Mesopotamian Civilisation Essay Example for Free

Egyptian and Mesopotamian Civilisation Essay In this essay, we shall attempt to examine the earliest examples of human civilisation, using examples from early Mesopotamian civilisations up to c2600BC. The earliest examples of civilisation are generally acknowledged to be found in Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indus Valley, Chinas Yellow River valley, and quite separately Peru. While some cultural trade and exchange can be expected from the initial 4 candidates, the Peruvian example implies that civilisation can and will occur separately and without influence; not an export, but simply a natural development. All of the earliest civilisations share certain characteristics. Claude Kluckhohn defined civilisation as any societal group which shared 2 of the following 3 characteristics: towns of greater than 5,000 people, a written language, and monumental ceremonial structures. While this works well as a rule of thumb, it fails to address certain important points; namely, how an area can accommodate high population densities, how written language is able to develop, and why monumental structures were built at all. Firstly, we shall tackle population density. For an early civilisation to achieve a population density in excess of 5,000 people to a single city or town, the first problem it must deal with is the most basic: that of food. Hunter-gatherer societies obviously cannot support this level of habitation mankind must be regarded in this matter as a top predator, and typical predator-prey ratios would imply that a hunting group of humans in excess of 5000 people would need a territory of around 75,000 kmà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½. The only possible answer to the question of how to concentrate this many people into a grouping is through the use of agriculture, and the development of farming techniques which allow large quantities of food to be produced using a relatively small area of land. Through the manipulation of the local environment to create food as needed, early civilisation was able to lower its dependency on natural conditions and begin the slow march of progress. However, there are other factors which must also be observed in the concentration of so many people into such a small area. The maintenance of social order is, by its very nature, an exponential equation; for every new member added to the group, he must form a social relationship with every existing member. Hence, high levels of social hierarchy and stratification become necessary very quickly its much more difficult to run a grouping of 100 people than it is to run one of 50, unless you have the correct social tools available to maintain control. Thankfully, increasing agricultural production allows for specialisation or at very least, taxation, which by its nature is a facilitator for specialisation. The surplus food supply means that actor X no longer needs to farm for himself, allowing for him to become a soldier, a lawyer, a priest, or even a god-king. The emergence of social specialisation almost certainly precedes concepts of state and law Hammurabi, author of the Code of Laws, was not the first priest-king to rule in Mesopotamia. In early Egypt, at very least, lestate cest moi certainly applies; it is very likely so in the other cradles of civilisation, with justice being doled out by personal decision of the king or his adjutants, on a case-by-case basis. The Code of Laws of Hammurabi leads us neatly to another of the foundations of early civilisation, that of writing. Possibly developed as a simple form of keeping tax records in Sumer, writing grants the author an external record of thoughts, one that can be read across time. It separates the writer from the concerns of time his words are no longer merely a short-term monodimensional event, but can be held and transcribed indefinitely, and literacy allows for information to be distributed far more effectively. While no mans voice can reach 5.5 million people directly, the Daily Mail is read by that many people every day though it is beyond the scope of this essay as to whether that paper can be regarded as information. Perhaps the most important aspect of writing, however, is that it creates an external bank of knowledge; a repository which may be added to continuously and with much more longevity than the lifetime of a single man. Hence, the sum total of human knowledge can be expanded indefinitely, rather than relying on the frailties of human memory. The eventual result of these major innovations is the rise of the city. Cities are the very essence of civilisation; the engines of progress which drive the advancement of technology and philosophy. Fed by the agricultural surplus, controlled by the new governments, and protected by the newly specialised military elites, the city allowed people to learn new trades and develop new concepts. Pottery can emerge in newer, more impressive forms; masonry can be developed and refined, and ideas such as mathematics, geometry, natural philosophy and any other conceptual discipline can be followed. It is no surprise, then, given the primary importance of the food supply, that the first civilisations emerge without fail on flood plains. Until irrigation and other farming technology is developed, the dark alluvial soil of the Mesopotamian flood plains, or the Nile river valley, is the only medium which can be exploited for the kind of mass-production of food needed for human population to reach the critical mass required for civilisation. Water is, of course, one of the main requirements of life; it would appear that it is also the catalyst for civilisation, not merely in the direct provision of drinking water, but also in the action of laying down fresh soil each year. Mesopotamia is often regarded as the initial starting point of civilisation as a whole, considered to pre-date the other centres, with the early Ubaid period beginning in c6000BC. This was still pre-history, with writing not appearing for another 2500 years or so; however, excavations at Ubaid by C.L. Woolley in the 1920s uncovered evidence of irrigation channels, canal systems, and temples connected to the period, as well as clay and terracotta ware, and, importantly, stone tools. Stone is not native to Iraq, implying a trade network; its also worthy of note that the wheel is considered to have been invented by the people of Ubaid. The Ubaid civilisations northern sites suffered some form of catastrophe in the mid-4th century BC, at around the time of the rise of what is known as the Uruk period; whether this was an outside invasion replacing the people of Ubaid, or a natural progression of the society itself is open to debate. The Uruk period (c4000BC-c3100BC) is notable for the beginnings of monumental architecture the first proto-ziggurats as well as the rise of the first large-scale cities, reaching up to 50,000 inhabitants. It is also, contentiously, where writing first appears to develop, in around 3500BC; though the primitive pictographic tablets of the period are effectively just pictures and incapable of describing concepts beyond the purely visual. There is also a great deal of evidence to imply a definite government structure, and therefore also social stratification, and also mass-production of pottery. It is the period immediately following Uruk, known as Jemdet Nasr or the proto-literate period, where writing really begins to take hold, and that history can definitely be said to have begun. Cuneiform symbols developed, possibly for the purpose of tax records, and while some pictographic elements remained within the written language, their numbers began to drop significantly and their meanings move from strictly descriptive to multi-purpose. The development of the pictographs into cuneiforms may have been spurred by the adoption of the wedge-shaped cuneus as the standard writing implement, which made the pictograph itself more difficult to achieve; however, the concept of syllabic writing was still undeveloped, and given the Sumerian tendency to monosyllabic speech forms it would take a while to appear. Jemdet Nasr is also known as Uruk III, and it shares a majority of the typical cultural markers of the previous period, in more highly-developed forms. Most notable of the periods legacies is the sexagesimal number system, still used in time measurement today. Following the proto-literate phase, history can begin properly, and the Sumerian civilisation truly begins. However, the term civilisation implies a unity which was certainly not present in ancient Mesopotamia at the time; the Sumerians were divided amongst themselves into a series of small, competing city-states, in a manner akin to the classical Greeks. This competition took the form of both war and trade, with the area trading its substantial food surpluses for metals and wood from neighbouring areas. In each city, a Priest-King would rule in the name of the citys God, and each city had a different patron deity. Every so often, one city or another would gain primacy in the area, leading to its king claiming the title king of Kish, possibly due to Kish being the first such state to gain hegemony. The city states themselves became increasingly fortified, and warfare between the various kings became near-constant. In spite of the healthy food surpluses, and the vast storehouses kept for grain, farmland and water were a constant prize for these wars, possibly due to food being the primary trade good. While these wars were often violent and repetitive, the king of Kish would occasionally be brought in for arbitration between feuding states; this king could also seemingly try to call on the military aid of other kings should he need it, although not always successfully. This principal of first amongst equals appears to have been shaky at best, with the other states never far enough behind the leader to be safely considered vassals. In conclusion, the origin of civilisation is firmly connected to the supply of food. It is the surpluses which allow it to arise, it is the fertility of the flood plains which marks the site of early civilisation, and it is even the food wealth of Mesopotamia which created the technological hotbed of organised warfare. The intensive competition for limited agricultural land, with little other natural resources, naturally encouraged startling innovations, such as writing and the wheel, just as in Greece they led to the growth of philosophy and mathematics, and in Europe to the rise of the jet fighter and the ballistic missile.

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Night Comparison Paper Rough Draft The Italian Jews were among the luckiest Jews during their time. The Italian Jewish community, one of the oldest in Europe, numbered about 50,000 in 1933. They were accepted as important members of the society and were successful in the military, politics, and many more skill professions. Everything went downhill when Benito Mussolini’s government asked the non-Jewish community to turn on their Jewish neighbors, but most of the population said no. As a result, a higher percentage of Italian Jews were saved than in very country except for Denmark. The Italians turned there back on the government, as Italy was allies with Germany but the citizens opposed the Nazi party. This resulted in many Italian-Jews being rescued. Throughout Night and Survival in Auschwitz, both Elie Wiesel and Primo Levi both experienced harsh living conditions under the Nazis. When Elie first arrived at Auschwitz, he witnessed something unforgettable, which was the burning of live infants, which resulted in huge amounts of smoke. He described this day as, "Never shall I forget that night . . ." This was only the beginning as Elie experienced the dehumanization, by being fed a little a day, being forced to work long hours and being crammed in small beds and trains. Throughout his time in camp, Elie had no luxury of showering or taking breaks but on the other hand he was forced to work as a slave. This was no difference for Primo, who experienced a little too. At Fossoli, he was given nothing to drink for four days. Which is torture! Things get worse when he arrives in Auschwitz, as he gets his head shaved, forced to take showers whit no room, and tattooed with numbers. He described it, as â€Å"everything around us speaks of a ... ... of personality but obviously this was not present. Elie and the prisoners struggled to maintain human character traits. Both Levi and Elie experienced the struggle to remain human. Primo Levi’s perspective of the Holocaust really went into detail about the tragic events. I really got a better knowledge of the treatment of the prisoners. Words such as â€Å"terrible† and â€Å"inhumane† were mentioned a lot to describe the treatment by the Nazis. In addition, Primo Levi also touches on how morals and values were thrown aside for survival. This is an interesting topic, which caught my attention. Prisoners during the Holocaust threw their religion aside, which was present in Elie and Primo. They started doubting the existence of a God and started doing things for their own good. Primo Levi really went in depth about the Holocaust and gave me a different perspective.

Nursing as a Profession

Nursing as a Profession The Purpose of this paper is to discuss whether nursing is a profession based on Pavalko’s eight dimensions describing a profession. Firstly, we must understand the definition of a profession before one can accurately judge the validation of the nursing profession. According to Webster dictionary, the definition of a profession is â€Å"a calling requiring specialized knowledge and often long academic preparation† (Webster dictionary, 2008).The nursing profession is one that needs specialized knowledge and training. It also applies to an occupation that requires formal education or qualification. The nursing field includes a set of skills that combines flexibility, creativity, knowledge and communication that are learnt in a formal setting. As we analyze Pavalko’s eight dimensions describing a profession, we will incorporate it into the nursing profession to justify or disprove if nursing is truly a profession. A profession has relevance t o social values.The nursing profession is rooted in its ability to serve all people with their acquired skills. The nursing profession has the power to make a huge difference in today’s health care system. They advocate for the individuals and focuses not only on the treatment component of an individual, but also on prevention and health promotion. They also seek for the protecting of human and legal rights and the securing of adequate care based on the notion that the patient has the right to make informed decisions about their health.According to nursing standards (2010) â€Å"people value nurses but do not understand how complex the profession has become and how key nurses are to the health care. Nurses are devoted to patient care and community involvement as a whole. The nursing profession provides various activities in the community as a whole such as volunteering for health – related activities such as screening, blood drives and educational programs. They serve as role models for health practices and healthy lifestyles. With these given attributes I believe the nursing rofession has relevance to social values. A profession has a training or educational period. There are various education preparations for the nursing practice and it various based on the location, length of time, course work, clinical component, advance educational opportunities, and competencies on graduation. The three main type of educational programs that lead to licensure as an RN includes the diploma, associate degree, and baccalaureate programs. The diploma requires a basic nursing education in a 3-year, hospital based diploma school of nursing.The Associate degree nursing (ADN), based on a research project carried out by Dr Mildred Montag in the 1950s, at the time there was a shortage of nurses, and the project was created to meet the needs of society by preparing nurses in less time than was required in diploma program (Taylor, Lillis, Lemone and Lynn, 2008). The B achelor of Science in nursing (BSN) is geared towards building on a general educational base, with concentration on nursing at the upper level. All graduates of these programs are mandated to take an NCLEX-RN examination set by the board of nursing.It is much different from nursing school exams which are knowledge based. The NCLEX-RN exams are application based which test one’s ability to be able to think critically as to make nursing judgments. The nursing profession incorporates specialized skill and application of knowledge based on theory and clinical practice components. It is also an evidence based practice based on research and not just intuition. Given these criteria, I believe the nursing field qualifies as a profession because of the training and educational period.Elements of self-motivation address the way in which the profession serves the patient or family and larger social system. The American Nurses Association (ANA) has been involved in advocating for health care reforms for many years, in order to guarantee high-quality health care for all. Today, with the increase cost of health care, under insured and uninsured individual there has been disparities in the quality and health care for individuals. The ANA saw the efforts of many registered nurses come to fruition, culminating in President Obama’s signing of H.R. 4872, â€Å"The Health Care and Education Affordability Reconciliation Act of 2010† (McNamara, 2010). This reform allows for greater protection against losing and denial of health care coverage, and it also allows for better access to primary care, wellness and prevention programs which will keep the patient healthier. This reform serves as a significant victory for the patient that the nursing profession serves. The ANA continues to be an advocate for building an affordable health care system that meets the needs of everyone (McNamara, 2010).In world where nurses are under pressure to deliver production-line care , it expresses the value of the â€Å"soft† aspect of caring that affect wellbeing (Wright, 2009). This attribute proves that the nursing profession is a profession that serves the patient and the larger social system. A profession has a code of ethics. Professional ethics and codes of ethics are the primary means for expressing the values and regulating the conduct of professionals in relation to their clients (Liaschenko, Peter, 2004). The ANA house of delegate adopted and first published the nursing code of ethics in the 1950’s.It has then been altered and revised to meet the changes in the profession and in society. The â€Å"Code† is the foundation upon which registered nurses provide care, it provides a framework for decision-making and basically guides the action of the registered nurse (Rafferty, 2010). It is a non-negotiable ethical standard that expresses the nurse’s own understanding of commitment to the society. The nursing profession qualifie s as a profession because it has a code of standard that guides its existence. A professional has a commitment to a lifelong work.The term nursing is derived from the word nurse, which means one that nourishes, foster, protect the sick, injured and restore health. The nursing profession is considered a career and not a job which involves commitment, promotes growth and increases various levels of responsibilities. The profession provides gratification for the individual’s personal accomplishment rather than entirely from a paycheck. The nursing profession has four main aims that define it. They aim to promote health, prevent illness, restore health, and facilitate coping with disability or death.The nurses can successfully achieve these aims through acquired knowledge, skills and critical thinking in order to give care in a variety of traditional and expanding nursing roles (Taylor, Lillis, Lemone and Lynn, 2008). The nursing profession is a profession that has a commitment t o a lifelong work. Members control their profession. The nursing profession is autonomous as the nursing board in each state has set up rules and guidelines that nurses are required to adhere strictly (Orem, 2008). There are numerous professional organization that set standards for the nursing practice and education.These entities are set up to help maintain the code of ethics that guides the nursing profession. The registered nurses work under professional and legislative control. The state board of each state set practice act for the registered nurse. These organizations helps to maintain the code of ethics, promote the registered nurse profession to the public, advocate for both the patient and other members of the organization and help to set a standard of practice for the profession. It also serves as a platform where one’s voice can be heard.Organizations such as the American Nurses Association (ANA), The American Association of Critical-care nurses (AACN), The National League for Nursing (NLN), The National Student Nurse’s Association (NSNA) and the National Black Nurses Association (NBNA ) are just a few of the professional organization that plays a significant role in empowering nurses in the nursing profession and also helping to facilitate network. They educate its members to incorporate client interaction, personal interaction with the public, public speaking and community activities and participation in political activities to be effective in the field of nursing.Overall, I believe the nursing profession qualifies as a profession because it has members that control the profession. A Profession has theoretical framework on which professional practice is based. The nursing field has always been evidence based. The first nursing theory was born in the 1950’s. In 1952, Dr. Hildegard Peplau published a nursing model that described the importance of the â€Å"therapeutic relationship† in health and wellness (Zerwekh and Clabo rn, 2009). Thereafter, other nursing theorist such as Martha Rogers, Dorothy Johnson, Nola Pender, Lydia hall, sister Callista Roy, Dorothea Orem, and BettyNeuman have contributed to theory based nursing. The Theory-based nursing is geared towards a common goal with the ultimate outcome resulting in improved patient care. It provides rational and knowledgeable reasons for nursing actions, based on organized written description of what nursing is and what nurses do (Taylor, Lillis, Lemone and Lynn, 2008). Members of a profession have a common identity and a distinctive subculture. In the past, nurses have been identified by the white gown, shoe, cap and pin. They were identified mostly by how they look instead of what they did.The modern-day trend emphasizes that it is not what is worn but what is done that reflects one’s role in the nursing profession (Zerwekh and Claborn, 2009). The nursing profession has a distinctive subculture that is identifiable. These include affiliati on with alumni association, student nurses association, and nursing honor societies or clubs. Involvements in such organization provides for social interaction and networking in later years. The BSN nurse plays a variety of roles in relation to patient care such as being a caregiver, teacher, advocate, manager, colleague and expert.The role of the caregiver is the primary role of a nurse which includes promoting wellness through activities that prevent illness, restore health, function as a nurturer, comforter and provider, provide direct, promote comfort of client and showing concern for client welfare and acceptance of the client as an individual. As a teacher, the BSN nurse must use his or her communication skills to implement, asses, evaluate and execute individual teaching plan to meet the learning needs of the patient and the family (Zerwekh and Claborn, 2009).The role of the nurse as an advocate involves choosing the best plan of action on behalf of the client by making sure that their needs are met and protecting their human and legal right. They also provide detailed and understandable explanation and information to support the client’s decision. The nurse as a manager helps to make decisions, plan, instruct, evaluate care, and coordinate activities and representation of the staff and health care facilities as needed. The role of a colleague is an important role in the nursing field.It deals with effective communication and conflict management amongst peers working towards a purposeful goal to provide adequate care for the client and other synergy among other health care professionals. The nurse as an expert specializes in a specific area of practice acquired through advanced formal or informal education. They include researchers, clinician, educators, theorist and leaders within the nursing profession. They share information with other nurses through mentoring, continuing-education programs, writing articles and guest-speaking.Overall, the bsn nurse must embrace the roles that provide a wealth of knowledge about the ever evolving field of nursing. In conclusion, the nursing profession is definitely a profession based on Pavalko’s eight dimensions describing a profession. It has relevance to social values, requires training or educational period, self motivating to serve the patient and their family and the larger social system, guided by a code of ethics, commitment to a lifelong work, members control their profession, has a theoretical framework and have a common identity and a distinctive subculture.It is a true profession that is considered the largest and most powerful of all the health care professionals. References Ajiboye, Peace. (2010). Profession's popular image. Nursing Standard, 24(25), 14. Liaschenko, J, ;amp; Peter, E. (2004). Nursing ethics and conceptualization of nursing: profession, practice and work. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 46(5), 488-95. McNamara, M. (2010, March 30). Ana's nurses’ e fforts pay off in historic health care bill signing. American Nurses Association, Retrieved from www. nursingworld. rg Orem, O. (2008, February 8). â€Å"What’s in a name? † Chinese Medicine Therapy, Retrieved fromhttp://www. chinesemedicinetherapy. com/nursing. Taylor, C, Lillis, C. , LeMone, P. & Lynn, P. (2008). Fundamentals of Nursing: The Art & Science of Nursing Care (6th ed. ). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins. Wright, Steven. (2009). The Ethics of care. Nursing standards, 24(8), 26-27. Zerwekh, J. , & Clayborn, J. (2009). Nursing today transition and trends (6th ed. ). St. Lois: Missouri. Saunders Elsevier.

Hernan Cortes and His Tlaxcalan Allies

Conquistador Hernan Cortes and his Spanish troops did not conquer the Aztec Empire on their own. They had allies, with the Tlaxcalans being among the most important. How this alliance developed and how their support was crucial to Cortes success. In 1519, as conquistador Hernan Cortes was making his way inland from the coast on his audacious conquest of the Mexica (Aztec) Empire, he had to pass through the lands of the fiercely independent Tlaxcalans, who were the mortal enemies of the Mexica. At first, the Tlaxcalans fought the conquistadors viciously, but after repeated defeats, they decided to make peace with the Spanish and ally with them against their traditional enemies. The aid provided by the Tlaxcalans would eventually prove crucial for Cortes in his campaign. Tlaxcala and the Aztec Empire in 1519 From 1420 or so to 1519, the mighty Mexica culture had come to dominate most of central Mexico. One by one, the Mexica had conquered and subjugated dozens of neighboring cultures and city-states, turning them into strategic allies or resentful vassals. By 1519, only a few isolated holdouts remained. Chief among them were the fiercely independent Tlaxcalans, whose territory was located to the east of Tenochtitlan. The area controlled by the Tlaxcalans comprised some 200 semi-autonomous villages united by their hatred of the Mexica. The people were from three main ethnic groups: the Pinomes, Otomà ­, and Tlaxcalans, who were descended from warlike Chichimecs who had relocated to the region centuries before. The Aztecs tried repeatedly to conquer and subjugate them  but always failed. Emperor Montezuma II himself had most recently tried to defeat them in 1515. The Tlaxcalans hatred of the Mexica ran very deep. Diplomacy and Skirmish In August of 1519, the Spanish were making their way to Tenochtitlan. They occupied the small town of Zautla and pondered their next move. They had brought with them thousands of Cempoalan allies and porters, led by a nobleman named Mamexi. Mamexi counseled going through Tlaxcala and possibly making allies of them. From Zautla, Cortes sent four Cempoalan envoys to Tlaxcala, offering to talk about a possible alliance, and moved to the town of Ixtaquimaxtitlan. When the envoys did not return, Cortes and his men moved out and entered Tlaxcalan territory anyway. They had not gone far when they came across Tlaxcalan scouts, who retreated and came back with a larger army. The Tlaxcalans attacked but the Spanish drove them off with a concerted cavalry charge, losing two horses in the process. Diplomacy and War Meanwhile, the Tlaxcalans were trying to decide what to do about the Spanish. A Tlaxcalan prince, Xicotencatl the Younger, came up with a clever plan. The Tlaxcalans would supposedly welcome the Spanish  but would send their Otomà ­ allies to attack them. Two of the Cempoalan emissaries were allowed to escape and report to Cortes. For two weeks, the Spanish made little headway. They remained camped out on a hilltop. During the day, the Tlaxcalans and their Otomi allies would attack, only to be driven off by the Spanish. During lulls in the fighting, Cortes and his men would launch punitive attacks and food raids against local towns and villages. Although the Spanish were weakening, the Tlaxcalans were dismayed to see that they were not gaining the upper hand, even with their superior numbers and fierce fighting. Meanwhile, envoys from Mexica Emperor Montezuma showed up, encouraging the Spanish to keep fighting the Tlaxcalans and to not trust anything they said. Peace and Alliance After two weeks of bloody fighting, Tlaxcalan leaders convinced the military and civil leadership of Tlaxcala to sue for peace. Hotheaded Prince Xicotencatl the Younger was sent personally to Cortes to ask for peace and an alliance. After sending messages back and forth for a few days with not only the elders of Tlaxcala but also Emperor Montezuma, Cortes decided to go to Tlaxcala. Cortes and his men entered the city of Tlaxcala on September 18, 1519. Rest and Allies Cortes and his men would remain in Tlaxcala for 20 days. It was a very productive time for Cortes and his men. One important aspect of their extended stay was that they could rest, heal their wounds, tend to their horses and equipment and basically get ready for the next step of their journey. Although the Tlaxcalans had little wealth—they were effectively isolated and blockaded by their Mexica enemies—they shared what little they had. Three hundred Tlaxcalan girls were given to the conquistadors, including some of noble birth for the officers. Pedro de Alvarado was given one of the daughters of Xicotencatl the elder named Tecuelhuatzà ­n, who was later christened Doà ±a Maria Luisa. But the most important thing the Spanish gained in their stay in Tlaxcala was an ally. Even after two weeks of constantly battling the Spanish, the Tlaxcalans still had thousands of warriors, fierce men who were loyal to their elders (and the alliance their elders made) and who despised the Mexica. Cortes secured this alliance by meeting regularly with Xicotencatl the Elder and Maxixcatzin, the two great lords of Tlaxcala, giving them gifts and promising to free them from the hated Mexica. The only sticking point between the two cultures seemed to be Cortes insistence that the Tlaxcalans embrace Christianity, something they were reluctant to do. In the end, Cortes did not make it a condition of their alliance, but he continued to pressure the Tlaxcalans to convert and abandon their previous idolatrous practices. A Crucial Alliance For the next two years, the Tlaxcalans honored their alliance with Cortes. Thousands of fierce Tlaxcalan warriors would fight alongside the conquistadors for the duration of the conquest. The contributions of the Tlaxcalans to the conquest are many, but here are some of the more important ones: In Cholula, the Tlaxcalans warned Cortes of a possible ambush: they participated in the ensuing Cholula Massacre, capturing many Cholulans and bringing them back to Tlaxcala as slaves and sacrifices.When Cortes was forced to return to the Gulf Coast to face conquistador Panfilo de Narvaez and a host of Spanish soldiers sent by governor Diego Velazquez of Cuba to take command of the expedition, Tlaxcalan warriors accompanied him and fought at the Battle of Cempoala.When Pedro de Alvarado ordered the Massacre at the Festival of Toxcatl, Tlaxcalan warriors helped the Spanish and protected them until Cortes could return.During the Night of Sorrows, Tlaxcalan warriors helped the Spanish escape by night from Tenochtitlan.After the Spanish fled Tenochtitlan, they retreated to Tlaxcala to rest and regroup. New Aztec Tlatoani Cuitlà ¡huac sent emissaries to the Tlaxcalans urging them to unite against the Spanish; the Tlaxcalans refused.When the Spanish re-conquered Tenochtitlan in 1521, thou sands of Tlaxcalan soldiers joined them. Legacy of the Spanish-Tlaxcalan Alliance Its not an exaggeration to say that Cortes would not have defeated the Mexica without the Tlaxcalans. Thousands of warriors and a safe base of support only days away from Tenochtitlan proved invaluable to Cortes and his war effort. Eventually, the Tlaxcalans saw that the Spanish were a greater threat than the Mexica (and had been so all along). Xicotencatl the Younger, who had been leery of the Spanish all along, tried to openly break with them in 1521 and was ordered publicly hanged by Cortes; it was a poor repayment to the young Princes father, Xicotencatl the Elder, whose support of Cortes had been so crucial. But by the time the Tlaxcalan leadership began to have second thoughts about their alliance, it was too late: two years of constant warring had left them far too weak to defeat the Spanish, something they had not accomplished even when at their full might in 1519. Ever since the conquest, some Mexicans have considered Tlaxcalans to be traitors who, like Cortes interpreter and mistress Doà ±a Marina (better known as Malinche) aided the Spanish in the destruction of native culture. This stigma persists today, albeit in a weakened form. Were the Tlaxcalans traitors? They fought the Spanish and then, when offered an alliance by these formidable foreign warriors against their traditional enemies, decided that if you cant beat em, join em. Later events proved that perhaps this alliance was a mistake, but the worst thing the Tlaxcalans can be accused of is lack of foresight. References Castillo, Bernal Dà ­az del, Cohen J. M., and Radice B. The Conquest of New Spain. London: Clays Ltd./Penguin; 1963.Levy, Buddy. Conquistador: Hernan Cortes, King Montezuma, and the Last Stand of the Aztecs. New York: Bantam, 2008.Thomas, Hugh. The Real Discovery of America: Mexico November 8, 1519. New York: Touchstone, 1993.